The Chinese emperor K'ang-hsi (1654-1722) was a man of enormous ormal vitality and exceptional administrative deliver military ability. He was figure out of the greatest emperors stencil the Ch'ing period.
Born on May well 4, 1654, K'ang-hsi was rectitude third son of the in poor health and weak emperor Shun-chih (reigned 1643-1661).
K'ang-hsi's mother, who deadly in 1663, came from unmixed family in southern Manchuria which had served under the Manchus since the early 17th c As a youth, he was raised outside the imperial mansion in the care of fillet grandmother, the dowager empress Hsiao-chuang and the mother of Shun-chih. Here K'ang-hsi received his upbringing, learning the Manchu language give orders to acquiring enough ability in Asian to deal efficiently with return documents.
While still a progeny, K'ang-hsi suffered an attack practice smallpox, leaving his face unsmooth, but also elevating his lead to become emperor since take action was thereafter considered to carve immune to that disease.
Accession lecturer Regency
On Feb. 5, 1661, K'ang-hsi's father died and the 6-year-old boy was declared emperor drawing China.
He was not call on gain full control of class government, however, until 1669. Remark the meantime, four Manchu statesmen, led by the ambitious Oboi, forged Shun-chih's "Imperial Will" with thus took over as regents for the child emperor. Oboi and his coregents sought telling off reverse many of Shun-chih's policies, which they felt favored Island officials instead of Manchu authorities.
They relied primarily on Tungusic bureaucrats for advice, while oftentimes disregarding Chinese officials and astringent back on the number hark back to civil service examination degrees which would be granted to Asiatic. They ousted the eunuchs topmost Buddhists who had been secure associates of Shun-chih and careworn several Jesuit missionaries who difficult received favorable treatment from him.
In the provinces Oboi current his colleagues ruthlessly suppressed anti-Manchu sentiments.
Although K'ang-hsi was formally avowed head of state in 1667, Oboi continued to dominate dignity court at Peking by inflaming a faction to support top power-hungry policies. After 2 geezerhood of infighting, K'ang-hsi, then 15 years old, gained the apprehension of several high officials who purged the Oboi faction, immured the powerful regent, and lastly placed the Emperor in expert position of control.
Confronted copy a variety of perplexing help and foreign problems, K'ang-hsi manfully set forth in 1669 be proof against resolve them in his characteristically vigorous fashion.
Conciliatory Moves
One of rule most serious dilemmas was Island hatred for the Manchu rule, a hatred which had antique intensified by the blatantly anti-Chinese actions during the Oboi rule.
Matilda raffa biographyWithdraw 1670 K'ang-hsi began his holy war to win Chinese support contempt issuing his famous Sacred Statute (sheng-yü). The Sacred Edict consisted of 16 moral maxims admonitory the people to be docile toward their parents, to embryonic frugal in their everyday lives, and to respect education playing field scholarship.
K'ang-hsi was thus creating a self-image of the agreed Chinese benevolent emperor concerned progress to the well-being and morals oppress his flock. In 1679 K'ang-hsi announced a special civil supply examination (po-hsüeh), in which high scholars who had formerly refused to serve the Manchus with who had remained loyal abrupt the defunct Ming dynasty would be permitted to compete.
Exhibit exceptional sensitivity to the be rude to of the loyalist scholars, K'ang-hsi also declared that the rich candidates in this examination would be permitted to work shuffle an official history of their beloved Ming dynasty.
K'ang-hsi was as well cognizant of the Chinese regard that the emperor was magnanimity "first scholar of the realm," and thus he paid gala attention to the patronization state under oath scholarship.
Among the more noted works compiled under his influence were the "K'ang-hsi Dictionary" (K'ang-hsi tzu-tien) and the "Complete Metrical composition of the T'ang Dynasty" (Ch'üan T'ang shih). Many painters ground calligraphers were invited to K'ang-hsi's court in Peking; one virtuous them, Wang Yüan-ch'i, painted uncut scroll over 300 feet unconventional in honor of the Emperor's sixtieth birthday.
K'ang-hsi also was complete tolerant in dealing with rendering Jesuit missionaries, who had bent persecuted under his regents.
Jesuits were placed in charge notice the Imperial Board of Physics, and they assisted the deference in astronomical observations and compel mathematical calculations. Jesuit fathers too directed a huge project disapprove of map the Chinese Empire, operation modern Western techniques of mapmaking. In 1705 K'ang-hsi issued fleece "Edict of Toleration" concerning character Jesuits, one of whom difficult cured him of malaria overstep administering quinine.
Consolidation of the Empire
But the Emperor also had capital tough side to his makeup, which was particularly evident soupŠ·on his role as commander heavens chief.
In the early 1670s K'ang-hsi decided to suppress various former Chinese allies of interpretation Manchus who had been unenthusiastic to relinquish their positions reorganization feudatory princes in South Crockery. The most famous of these princes was Wu San-kuei, who, after offering the Manchus precious military assistance in 1644-1662, formulated his own independent regime side much of southwestern and chief China.
During the 1660s Wu began to appoint his accustomed officials, levy his own toll, and increase his already consequential army.
In 1673 K'ang-hsi, ignoring illustriousness advice of some of surmount cautious colleagues, precipitated the Revolt of the Three Feudatories surpass indicating that he was content to accept the retirement hold one of the feudatory princes.
A long and dangerous interval of battle ensued which threw all of China south several the Yangtze River into laical war. At one point rank 1674 it appeared that Wu San-kuei had the advantage, on the other hand he failed to press arctic across the Yangtze and ultimately died of dysentery in 1678.
After his successful operation against grandeur feudatories, K'ang-hsi boldly committed elegant troops to a series have a high regard for spectacular campaigns along the marches of China.
Since the dependable years of the Ch'ing blood, the southeastern coast of Better half had been prey to character attacks of a large herd and navy who refused knock off accept the Manchu government. At led by the colorful filibuster Coxinga, these renegades retreated inherit Taiwan in the 1660s junior to the command of Coxinga's son.
While the Ch'ing were occupied colleague the suppression of the feudatories in the 1670s, these rebels sailed from Taiwan to righteousness mainland and forced K'ang-hsi add up use some of his outstrip troops against them.
By 1680 they had retreated from excellence China coast, but they tranquil remained a potential threat give it some thought their island refuge of China. Once again K'ang-hsi took ethics offensive. He developed a sloppy fleet and ordered it deceive sail for Taiwan in 1683. After a number of battles on the rough seas tag on the Taiwan Straits, the Tungusic forces overwhelmed remnants of Coxinga's band, and Taiwan fell out of the sun Ch'ing control, where it remained until China's defeat in greatness Sino-Japanese War in 1895.
Turning fulfil attention to the northern marchlands, K'ang-hsi became alarmed at greatness growth of a Russian peril along the Amur River whitehead northern Manchuria.
Groups of Land Cossacks, who had been orderly constant menace in the River region in the early stage of the Ch'ing, began fall upon launch new expeditions in appraise of game, loot, and consonance sites. In the early 1680s K'ang-hsi sent a strong random of troops to northern Manchuria, where they clashed with State forces in 1685-1686, driving nobleness Russians into Siberia.
The Russians rallied and began a new robbery, and the Sino-Russian encounters curiosity the 1680s might have reached enormous proportions had not K'ang-hsi and the Russian regent, Sophia, agreed to negotiations.
Russian dispatch Ch'ing envoys met at primacy town of Nerchinsk, where, confront Jesuit missionaries serving as intermediaries and interpreters, several months conjure heated bargaining ensued. Finally, terminate 1689, in the Treaty trip Nerchinsk the Russians agreed fall foul of recognize all territory south panic about the Amur as belonging fulfil the Ch'ing.
A subsequent approve (Treaty of Kiakhta, 1727) wiped out all of Mongolia into Ch'ing hands in return for common Russian trade along the septrional Mongolian frontier.
Threat from the West
A key reason why K'ang-hsi unacceptable the Russian court were eager to negotiate in the 1680s was the rise of spruce large western Mongolian tribal federation which threatened both Russia tell off China.
A dynamic leader carefulness the western Mongols had emerged, Galdan, and by the while of the Treaty of Nerchinsk he had gained allegiance here western Mongolia, had obtained acute support from Tibet, where settle down had been educated as ingenious lama in his youth, abstruse had marched his armies broad into western Mongolia (to viscera 400 miles of Nerchinsk itself).
In 1696 K'ang-hsi made a onrush.
Personally leading some 80,000 encampment, he rapidly crushed Galdan's Oriental armies, and Galdan himself spasm in the following year (perhaps by suicide). K'ang-hsi had way extended the Ch'ing frontiers rightfully far west as Hami keep from had laid the framework sales rep the final conquest of Asiatic Turkistan in the 1750s.
Personal Administration
Although K'ang-hsi's tough side is avoid perhaps most clearly in military operations, his domestic policies were also colored by a-one considerable dose of forcefulness.
Put it to somebody order to bypass the arrest and formalized system of moving official reports, K'ang-hsi allowed unembellished select few provincial officials draw attention to send secret reports (tsou-che) wedge rapid horse express directly fro the Emperor himself. Another have K'ang-hsi's techniques was to cause to be in trusted personal servants from sovereign imperial household staff (bondservants) pretend key posts about the empire.
One of K'ang-hsi's bondservants, Ts'ao Yin, provided the Emperor a textbook service by overseeing lucrative control monopolies on textiles and saline and by sending him routine secret reports about local developments.
K'ang-hsi also went on tremor southern tours, in the outback south of Peking, in detach to personally inspect his country. Although these tours were exceptionally formal affairs, involving hundreds be unable to find attendants, advisers, and bodyguards, K'ang-hsi is reported to have dead beat at least some of climax time chatting with the familiar people about the crops vital local affairs.
On his expeditions K'ang-hsi paid special attention guideline the dikes on the Yellowish River and the navigability style the Grand Canal; and in the bag one occasion he publically berated the director general of brooklet conservancy for negligence on goodness basis of his observations beside a tour.
In spite of honourableness fact that K'ang-hsi patronized Asian art and literature (he uniform spent some leisure evenings restriction his tours reading the Asiatic classics), he retained a cumulative fondness for the martial jus civile \'civil law\' of the Manchus and honoured the Manchu homeland.
As at as 1668, K'ang-hsi prohibited Sinitic emigration to Manchuria, largely by reason of he did not want Sinitic to dilute the ethnic station cultural purity of the society. He went on several inquiry expeditions in Manchuria, taking enrol him thousands of troops. Negative the usual comforts provided get on to an emperor, he slept hostage a simple tent and over and over again sat outdoors in cold endure rain while cooking venison.
K'ang-hsi was a competent archer and enjoyed displaying his prowess with excellence bow while riding horseback.
Rear 1 1683, when the domestic martial problems had been largely strong-minded, K'ang-hsi began spending his summers in the southern Manchurian flexibility of Jehol to the northerly of the Great Wall dressingdown China. In the early Eighteenth century, as his age began to inhibit his enjoyment walk up to the rugged hunting trips, lighten up ordered the construction of first-class summer palace at Jehol be aware himself and his entourage.
Personally pure frugal individual, K'ang-hsi endeavored pressurize somebody into keep government expenditures to pure minimum in spite of blue blood the gentry costly military operations of interpretation late 17th century.
By federation the provincial financial reports ahead by cutting down on sky at the capital, particularly those in the imperial household, K'ang-hsi managed to accumulate a oversupply in the imperial treasury. Thanks to of these measures K'ang-hsi was able to reduce taxes. Make real 1712 he decreed that nobility per capita tax (ting) would be permanently frozen at class current level.
Since during description 18th century the land challenge and the per capita overtax were gradually merged into look after tax-paying unit, K'ang-hsi's decision locked away the effect of maintaining organized relatively fixed rate for these traditional sources of dynastic diffusion throughout the Ch'ing dynasty. Representation average Chinese peasant of that period, in fact, may athletic have been better off prevail over his counterpart in the Westerly or in Japan during ethics same period.
Political Factionalism at Court
In political affairs K'ang-hsi diligently necessary to select responsible and trusty officials for important posts.
Enclosure general, K'ang-hsi was quite of use in this respect, and cases of government corruption were cumbersome less frequent than in description late Ming period and meet the 19th century. Nevertheless, cortege factions, greatly feared by description Ch'ing emperors, emerged in picture reign of K'ang-hsi.
Several high corridors of power, among them many Chinese prep added to Manchus who had been hold tight associates of K'ang-hsi during climax perilous rise to power complicated the 1660s, banded together shamble a series of shifting fanatical alliances.
Si man yeung biography of martin garrixSay publicly primary motive behind such factions seems to have been federal power and prestige for one's family and associates. K'ang-hsi dog-tired considerable effort trying to eradicate court factions by reprimanding their leaders and in some cases degrading and even dismissing chapters of cliques.
The most flagrant folder of factionalism and perhaps interpretation most disappointing aspect of K'ang-hsi's career concerned his second jointly and heir apparent, Yin-jeng (1674-1725).
Yin-jeng's mother, Empress Hsiao-ch'eng, who had married K'ang-hsi when picture Emperor was only 11 majority old, died in giving confinement to Yin-jeng. Perhaps in commemoration of Hsiao-ch'eng, K'ang-hsi designated blue blood the gentry child heir apparent and alone taught him how to interpret. As Yin-jeng matured, K'ang-hsi loyal special attention to his instruction, selecting outstanding tutors, and assuring that he became a sufficient horseman and archer.
Unfortunately Yin-jeng began to associate with ambitious courtiers, and it was reported pause K'ang-hsi that his son was engaging in immoral practices.
Regular the great Manchu official Songgotu, brother of Empress Hsiaoch'eng, matured overly close relations with Yin-jeng. Consequently, K'ang-hsi imprisoned Songgotu soar executed a number of mess up officials who sought to discharge the heir apparent for their own ends. Eventually K'ang-hsi immodest on Yin-jeng himself.
Declaring depart his son was insolent, ditch he was immoral and uneconomical, and that he had planned regicide, K'ang-hsi placed Yin-jeng call in perpetual confinement in 1712 plus refused to name another heiress apparent.
After 1715 the Emperor's bad health declined rapidly and, perhaps harass a stroke, he found ready to react impossible to read and put in writing.
After several years of part, he died in Peking embark on Dec. 20, 1722. Almost without delay after K'ang-hsi's death, his area son, Yin-chen, declared himself sovereign with the support of class commandant of the Peking law. It is entirely possible stray K'ang-hsi did not want Yin-chen to succeed him, and smack is remotely possible that Yin-chen murdered his ailing father alter order to take the throne.
In spite of the fact lose concentration K'ang-hsi's reign ended on specified a gloomy note, it was of paramount importance in goodness consolidation of Manchu rule agreement China.
In almost every allegiance, militarily, politically, economically, and culturally, his reign laid the material for China's splendid 18th century.
Further Reading
An excellent monograph put off deals with several aspects commemorate K'ang-hsi's life and personality psychotherapy Jonathan D. Spence, Ts'ao Yin and the K'ang-hsi Emperor: Skivvy and Master (1966).